Synthesis#
Duty and Autonomy#
Across the thinkers examined in this chapter, a shared ethical foundation emerges. All agree that the role of the ruler, whether as policymaker, public administrator, or community leader, is to promote social harmony. The term harmony is used here in a broader sense than the meaning Confucius originally gave it. Here, harmony refers to the seamless integration of members of a society in such a way that they form a well-functioning community capable of enduring beyond the lifespan of any individual. While all thinkers value harmony, they differ in how it is realized: in the roles individuals play, in the “tune” society follows, and in how rulers organize collective life.
We can imagine a spectrum of harmonies, ranging from those that place greater emphasis on duty to those that prioritize autonomy. The examined political theories fall somewhere between these poles.
Duty-based harmonies are grounded in the concept of obligation. When a person comes into existence, they do so as a member of a preexisting society. That society holds certain expectations about how new members ought to behave throughout their lives. At a minimum, individuals are expected to abide by established rules. More deeply, they are expected to respect these rules, since it is precisely these inherited duties that sustain the society into which they were born and make their own lives possible.
Autonomy-based harmonies, by contrast, are based on the idea that society is largely self-organizing. Individuals pursue their personal aspirations, and these pursuits tend, on the whole, to fit together in a harmonious way. People acquire few obligations by birth beyond compliance with the law. Laws typically prohibit certain actions, but they do not prescribe how one must live. Individuals are expected to form, revise and choose their own commitments in light of what they value, and they are then responsible for honoring those self-chosen obligations.
Virtues#
All of the thinkers considered agree that moral conduct is a fundamental requirement for rulers and community leaders. Both autonomy-based and duty-based societies view moral character as instrumental to effective governance. Virtues make leaders more capable in practice and, equally importantly, signal trustworthiness: society must be able to rely on them to make sound and responsible decisions. Duty-based societies place an even stronger emphasis on virtue. In these contexts, a ruler is expected not only to govern effectively but also to embody tradition, adhering to established norms and serving as a moral exemplar for others.
Among the virtues most frequently emphasized is humility: an understanding that a leader’s actions and perspective are not superior to those of everyone else in society. Humility takes different forms across the two types of social harmony. In an autonomy-based society, humility consists in recognizing that the administrators serve the public, that their own conception of value is not inherently superior, and that governance requires the integration of diverse perspectives. In a duty-based society, humility reflects recognition that tradition, divine order, or harmony itself represents a higher value than the ruler’s personal authority or ego.
Justice is another central virtue. The role of the ruler or administrator is closely tied to the maintenance of justice, as they function as its guarantors. In duty-based societies, justice consists in upholding the obligations that individuals have learned to expect across generations. In autonomy-based societies, justice is more closely associated with equality of opportunity and agency.
Practical Wisdom is also an important virtue. A ruler must be able to understand the situation, anticipate the likely consequences of actions, and make decisions that best promote enduring social harmony. Especially in autonomy-based societies, no single set of values can be applied mechanically in every circumstance; each situation must be carefully assessed to determine whether actions truly foster harmony. Even in duty-based societies, it is necessary to evaluate whether particular circumstances warrant exceptions to what tradition prescribes.
Finally, skill in communication and mediation is identified as an essential leadership trait. A leader must communicate clearly, act honestly, defuse conflicts, and provide reasons for their decisions. In duty-based societies, these skills reinforce and transmit the authority of tradition. In autonomy-based societies, they foster participation and deliberation among citizens. The notable exception among the thinkers discussed is Machiavelli, who permits deception in diplomacy, but only in contexts where relations with other rulers resemble a state of war.