Introduction#
Aristotle’s virtues#
Here we use Aristotle’s definition. Virtues are stable character traits developed through practice and reflection, manifested as a disposition to behave in the “right way”. In brief, the “right way” is what helps both a person and their community to flourish, while the “wrong way” is what harms or diminishes them.
Stages of virtue#
Aristotle recognizes that people do not start off virtuous but progress toward it in stages. This progress depends on one’s habits, desires, and rational capacity. Below are the four main stages he outlines.
The incontinent person knows what is right, but oftentimes lacks the will to act accordingly. Occasionally, they are ruled by desire rather than reason. This internal conflict leads to regret and self-reproach after acting against better judgment.
The continent person also experiences conflicting desires, but unlike the incontinent, they are able to resist temptation and do the right thing. Their rational part wins over their appetites, though the struggle remains.
The virtuous person not only does the right thing but also desires to do so. There is harmony between reason and emotion. Their character is fully developed, and virtuous action is effortless and joyful.
This divine level refers to individuals whose virtue exceeds ordinary human standards. Their entire self is dedicated to the fulfillment of the virtue.
Divine virtue and human limits#
Here, we make the claim that Aristotle’s highest level of virtue divine lies beyond ordinary human capacity. It implies complete, unbroken dedication to moral excellence without regard for bodily needs or personal well‑being.
Godlike virtue is not attainable because:
Human Nature: We are composite beings of body and soul. Our survival depends on rest, food, and social bonds. Total self‑sacrifice to virtue ignores these necessities.
Finite Resources: Time and energy are limited. Pursuing uninterrupted virtuous action would exhaust our physical and mental capacities.
Emotional Balance: Emotions signal needs—hunger, fatigue, grief—that require attention. Suppressing these signals undermines health and rational judgment.
Practical Wisdom: Phronesis demands moderation. True wisdom recognizes when to pause, reflect, and replenish one’s own capacities before acting again.
Vices#
Here we describe four stages of moral decline as mirror of Aristotle’s virtue theory. Each stage reflects a deeper entrenchment in wrongdoing and a weakening of one’s moral character.
The incontinent vice knows that doing wrong would be advantageous in the moment, but oftentimes lacks the will to act on that impulse. Occasionally, they remain bound by custom or fear, despite perceiving the “benefit” of vice.
The continent vice feels conflicting desires but consistently resists doing good, opting instead for wrongdoing. Their self-control is applied to secure vice without obvious risk.
The vicious person not only performs vicious acts but genuinely desires them. Vice has become their second nature; they take pleasure in violating moral norms.
At this pinnacle of vice, the devil exceeds ordinary human capacity. Their entire self is dedicated to the fulfillment of the vice.
Vices as self-preservation emotions#
In common usage, a vice is often confused with the emotion that triggers it. Yet the emotion itself is not the vice; it serves as a signal, alerting us to unmet needs, perceived disparities, or unfulfilled aspirations. What determines whether a vice is present is how we respond to that emotion. A vice arises when the response takes the form of deliberate hostility or destructive action aimed solely at self-preservation, without regard for others. When managed wisely, however, the same emotion can be redirected into reflection, dialogue, and constructive striving, becoming a catalyst for growth rather than harm.
As Aristotle observed, emotions are not inherently virtuous or vicious; rather, their moral character depends on how they are expressed and acted upon. For him, virtue lies in moderation, neither indulging excessively in an emotion nor suppressing it entirely, but finding its proper measure in relation to the situation. This balance requires phronesis, or practical wisdom, the capacity to discern the right response at the right time for the right reasons. In this sense, the benefits of emotions, even those traditionally associated with vice, can be realized when they are guided by reason and directed toward the common good.
Emotions of virtues and vices#
Virtuous person#
Aristotle’s account of virtue emphasizes that being virtuous is not merely about performing the right actions, but also about cultivating the right internal states, what a person feels, desires, and is motivated by.
A virtuous person takes genuine pleasure in doing what is good. This pleasure is a natural, meaningful joy that arises from engaging in virtuous activity. Doing the right thing feels rewarding in itself.
Virtue is marked by an internal harmony between reason and emotion. In a truly virtuous person, desires and feelings align with rational judgment. Their emotions support rather than resist moral reasoning, creating psychological unity and moral clarity.
A virtuous person flourishes within a community. Compassion and empathy are not distractions but essential guides to moral conduct. Their behavior is not only beneficial to themselves but also contributes positively to the well-being of others. They derive deep moral satisfaction from the good they do for their community.
A virtuous person possesses a well-grounded sense of self-respect regarding their moral character. They are humbly aware of their achievements, grateful to the community that helped shape them, and remain steadfast in the face of fear or adversity. Their moral convictions give them the courage to act with integrity, even under pressure.
Continent person#
A continent individual consistently does what is right despite inner conflict. Their moral life is shaped by a clear understanding of the good, coupled with an ongoing struggle to resist contrary desires.
A continent person deliberately chooses to act virtuously, motivated by a sincere belief that doing good benefits both themselves and the community they are part of. Their moral actions require effort and conscious commitment.
Unlike the fully virtuous person, the continent individual experiences internal conflict. Temptations toward vice remain appealing, but their deeper commitment to the good gives them the strength to resist. Their moral choices are victories of will over desire.
The continent person finds moral grounding in the community. Compassion and empathy serve as essential reference points against which they evaluate their impulses. Although their behavior contributes to the common good, they may sometimes reflect with uncertainty, wondering if their self-restraint is excessive or isolating.
They maintain a sense of self-respect for their moral integrity, recognizing the strength it takes to do what is right in the face of inner resistance. However, they are more prone to doubt than the fully virtuous person, especially when facing fear, uncertainty, or threats to their moral stance.
Incontinent person#
An incontinent individual lives in a state of emotional tension and moral instability. They are caught between a clear understanding of the good and a recurring tendency to give in to opposing impulses. This conflict creates a painful cycle of desire, weakness, and regret.
An incontinent person recognizes what is good and often wants to act accordingly. In the absence of strong temptations or external stimuli, they are capable of doing the right thing. However, their moral convictions are not deeply rooted, and they are vulnerable to lapses. When temptation arises, they may yield, even against their better judgment.
The emotional life of the incontinent person is marked by internal conflict. The appeal of vice remains. Their will to do good is present but not dominant, and they frequently succumb to temptation. While they may feel momentary satisfaction from the vicious act, this is quickly followed by regret and a renewed resolve to do better in the future.
In a community setting, the incontinent persons are receptive to compassion and empathy, which can help guide them toward the good. They understand the social value of virtuous behavior and often aspire to be better for the sake of the community. Yet, they also experience shame and remorse for not living up to these ideals more consistently.
Their self-perception is conflicted. They may feel some pride in their intentions, but this is undermined by frustration over their repeated failures. When confronted with fear or danger, they are more likely than the continent or virtuous person to abandon their moral commitments.
Incontinent vicious person#
An incontinent‑vicious individual experiences a conflicted emotional life. They are pulled between selfish inclinations and a reluctant recognition of the good. Their behavior is shaped by ambivalence and unstable desires.
The incontinent‑vicious person understands what is good for the community, but their primary motivation is self-interest. Left to their own devices, they tend to follow their selfish impulses. However, these desires are not strong or consistent enough to completely override social expectations, and they conform to virtuous behavior under the influence or pressure of the community.
The incontinent-vicious persons see some value in virtuous action, but their desire to prioritize their own gratification often dominates. Paradoxically, they may feel temporary relief or satisfaction after doing something morally right, yet regret not having seized the opportunity to indulge their vicious desires. For them, acting virtuously can feel like a missed chance for personal gain.
In the presence of others, they may behave better. Compassion and empathy, although weaker in them, are not entirely absent and can still influence their actions when they are part of a community. They recognize that virtuous behavior benefits society, but they aspire to it less often, focusing more on what serves their individual interests.
Their self-image is conflicted. They are neither fully comfortable with their selfishness nor fully committed to the good. When placed under community scrutiny or moral pressure, they may abandon harmful desires and conform to expected standards.
Continent vicious person#
A continent‑vicious individual exercises strong self-control to better pursue vicious goals.
The continent‑vicious person deliberately chooses actions that serve their own advantage, guided by a belief that self-interest should come first. Their effort and discipline are directed toward maximizing personal gain, even if at the expense of others.
Their inner life reflects a subtle moral conflict. They recognize that virtuous behavior has practical benefits, such as gaining trust or integrating smoothly into a community. However, their stronger commitment to self-serving ends overrides these considerations. The idea of doing good is acknowledged, but consistently pushed aside in favor of their own benefit.
In a community setting, they may thrive socially, but they do no refrain from manipulating or exploiting others. Traits like compassion and empathy might be twisted into tools for control. At times, they may experience moments of doubt or emotional clarity, brief reflections on whether they’ve gone too far or if they should rein themselves in.
A continent‑vicious person often has high self-regard, viewing their self-discipline and cunning as strengths. However, when faced with intense moral pressure from a principled community, they may experience cracks in their confidence. Their certainty in their path can falter when confronted by sincere ethical challenge.
Vicious person#
A vicious individual experiences emotions that not only justify, but often celebrate vicious behavior. Their emotional world is shaped by a deep internal alignment with vice and a conscious rejection of virtue.
A vicious person takes genuine pleasure in doing what is wrong. This is a sustained satisfaction in selfish actions. For them vice is a source of affirmation and identity.
Vice involves a kind of internal harmony between reason and emotion, albeit oriented toward the wrong ends. There is no inner conflict; rather, their feelings and rational thoughts work together to pursue vicious goals. Their desires do not resist their reasoning, and their reasoning fully supports their desires.
In a community setting, a vicious person may thrive if they are able to exploit others. Traits like compassion and empathy are viewed not as moral guides, but as tools for manipulation. Their behavior is entirely self-serving, and they often rationalize their actions as strategic cleverness or necessary for survival, dismissing moral values as naive or weak.
A vicious person tends to maintain an exaggerated sense of self-worth, believing in the superiority of their worldview. They may feel bitterness or contempt toward those who oppose or challenge them, and they remain unapologetically confident in their wrongdoing, even when it causes clear harm to others. Even if they are ultimately held accountable, they may justify or defend their actions, viewing consequences as the cost of living on their own terms.
Evolution in life#
We are not born inherently virtuous or vicious. Rather, we come into the world equipped with two fundamental instincts: the instinct for self-preservation and the instinct for empathy. These are not moral attributes in themselves, but the foundational drives that shape our moral development. Self-preservation tends to pull us toward vice, while empathy draws us toward virtue.
The instinct for self-preservation urges us to prioritize our own survival and well-being. It compels us to fulfill our immediate needs—food, warmth, safety, companionship—and to seize opportunities that benefit us. But it also grants us the foresight to consider long-term consequences and to make plans that secure our future. Self-preservation is not inherently selfish; it is the primal voice of hunger, of cold, of loneliness, reminding us to protect ourselves at all costs.
The instinct for empathy, on the other hand, draws our attention outward. It enables us to perceive the emotions of others and to internalize those feelings, if only partially. As we observe those around us, also driven by their own instinct for self-preservation, empathy teaches us to care about their well-being. It places natural boundaries on our actions and encourages us to consider the needs and dignity of others. Empathy fosters cooperation and community, and like self-preservation, it allows us to think beyond the present—only this time, with a vision that includes others. It asks: how can we protect and sustain not just ourselves, but everyone?
Ultimately, whether we lean toward vice or virtue depends on what we learn from those around us. If we grow up in environments that encourage and reward empathetic, ethical behavior, we find comfort in our connection to others. We begin our journey toward virtue—perhaps first as the incontinent who struggle, but aspire to do good, gradually seeking wisdom. However, if our communities discourage empathy or punish our attempts at kindness, we may retreat into self-preservation. We build walls instead of bridges, and this path can lead us toward vice.
In the end, we are shaped by both our instincts and our experiences. Our moral direction is not fixed at birth but forged through the interplay of what we are given and what we are taught.
The path to virtue#
When we are fortunate enough to grow up within a supportive and nurturing community, we are introduced to the values and principles that shape virtuous living. In such an environment, we begin our moral journey from a state of incontinent virtue. At this stage, we understand what is right and recognize the impact our actions have on others. However, the powerful emotions rooted in our instinct for self-preservation can still lead us to make poor choices, even when we know better.
Through lived experience, by seeing the real consequences of our actions, we gradually learn to exercise greater control over our impulses. As we develop emotional regulation and moral discipline, we transition into a state of continent virtue. Here, virtuous behavior becomes more consistent and intentional, even when it may conflict with our immediate desires.
This growth is not achieved in isolation. A supportive community continues to play a critical role, as do guiding forces such as a sense of tradition, gratitude, healthy self-regard, and meaningful relationships. These emotional resources help reinforce our commitment to living virtuously.
The next and more advanced stage of virtue is reached through ongoing practice, introspection, and philosophical insight. It requires a deeper internalization of virtue as an essential foundation for a thriving and harmonious community. At this level, one comes to understand that virtue is a necessity for the collective good.
This mature understanding reveals a profound truth: virtue is where empathy and self-preservation find their balance. It is the equilibrium in which individual needs and communal well-being are harmonized. Within this balance, the moral questions of life are addressed and shared understandings are formed. A community grounded in this higher form of virtue becomes prepared to evolve together, ready to move forward, not just as individuals, but as a unified whole seeking an even deeper moral vision.
The path to vice#
When we are unfortunate enough to grow up without the guidance of a supportive and nurturing community, we often become shaped by vice rather than virtue. In such an environment, we begin from a state of incontinent vice. Although we still possess an innate sense of empathy, an instinct that urges us to listen to and care for others, we gradually come to believe that self-preservation takes precedence. In a world that feels indifferent or hostile, looking out for oneself seems not only natural but necessary.
As we experience the consequences of our actions and observe how others respond to our behavior, whether cruel, indifferent, or transactional, we begin to internalize the belief that putting ourselves first is the only reliable strategy. Even though we still live among others and can recognize their emotions, our empathy becomes overshadowed by suspicion and self-interest. We learn to navigate social norms not to belong, but to exploit. Blending into society becomes a means of personal gain, not mutual respect.
In this stage, success in manipulation and self-serving behavior is seen as cleverness. We may even feel pride in our ability to exploit the system, and this is often accompanied by feelings of resentment, toward those who appear virtuous, and toward the community that failed us. These emotions serve to reinforce our commitment to vice and keep us anchored in this worldview.
The next stage emerges through the repetition of vicious behavior and its rationalization. Over time, we begin to view vice not only as necessary but as justifiable. We construct a worldview in which vice becomes a form of power, a way to assert our will in a world we perceive as fundamentally unjust or oppressive. We come to believe that progress and success belong to those who can outwit, outmaneuver, and exploit better than others.
In this hardened state, empathy is dismissed as weakness or deception. We convince ourselves that those who act virtuously are either naive or manipulative, that their apparent goodness hides ulterior motives. We find solace in a kind of imaginary community of fellow exploiters, validating our worldview and reinforcing the belief that the world is governed not by care, but by cunning.
Thus, the path to vice becomes self-reinforcing: a cycle of mistrust, rationalized harm, and emotional detachment. And unless something breaks that cycle—through reflection, suffering, or a new model of community, the descent continues, pulling us further from the possibility of moral renewal.
The rise from vice#
Even for those who have begun down the path of vice, particularly at the stages of incontinent and continent vice, redemption remains possible. The journey is not yet lost. At these stages, we still possess the capacity for change, we still hear the faint voice of empathy within us, and the possibility of transformation is real.
At the incontinent stage, our behavior is driven largely by self-preservation, yet our conscience still whispers to us. What we need most is to reconnect with a supportive community, one that encourages understanding, compassion, and moral growth. In such an environment, our dormant empathy can begin to stir again. We must learn to trust others, to believe that goodness exists not only in abstract ideals but in the people around us. This trust is the seed from which virtue can grow.
At the continent stage, we may already be controlling our actions out of discipline or social necessity, even though our motives remain self-centered. This stage presents a deeper opportunity: the chance to listen closely to our empathy and reflect on the emotional messages it conveys. We must trace these feelings back to their origins, (why do we feel what we feel?) and open ourselves to the emotional lives of others. Through honest inquiry, through asking and truly hearing people’s experiences, we give virtue a chance to take root within us. We begin to see the humanity in others, and in doing so, reawaken our own.
However, at the stage of fully developed vice, where empathy has been rejected and vice has been rationalized as truth, the path to redemption is more difficult and more profound. In this state, only a kind of personal enlightenment can bring about change. It is not something imposed from the outside, but something discovered through deep reflection, meditation, and an earnest exploration of the human experience. It may come through suffering, through beauty, through love, or through profound insight, but when it comes, it manifests as a spark of awareness that reveals the hollowness of vice and the possibility of a different life.
This spark can reignite the connection between empathy and action, between the self and the community. And from that point forward, the rise from vice becomes a new journey forward to wisdom.
The fall from virtue#
Even on the path of virtue, we are never beyond the risk of falling. Particularly at the stages of incontinent and continent virtue, vigilance is essential. Virtue is not a permanent state but a continual practice, one that can be shaken by emotion, circumstance, or neglect.
At the incontinent stage, we are aware of what is right and strive toward it, but we are still vulnerable to moments of weakness. In this stage, we must be especially wary of the excuses we make for abandoning virtuous behavior. It becomes tempting to justify our moral lapses by blaming others, difficult circumstances, or emotional turmoil. These rationalizations can slowly erode our commitment to virtue, turning momentary slips into a pattern of vice.
At the continent stage, we have developed greater consistency in virtuous actions, but our motivations may still be at odds with our desires. Here, the challenge is to maintain control over the powerful emotions tied to self-preservation, fear, pride, resentment, that may try to pull us away from empathy and selflessness. When those instincts grow strong, we must remain grounded in empathy and remind ourselves of the deeper reasons behind our moral resolve. Without mindfulness, even disciplined virtue can begin to decay.
At the stage of true virtue, the risk is not eliminated, ,it becomes more subtle. The greatest tests often come in the form of tragedy, betrayal, or deep suffering. These moments can shake our very foundation and make us question the value or possibility of goodness. Yet it is precisely in such trials that virtue is refined. If we embrace these hardships not as failures of justice but as part of the human condition, our virtue can deepen. We come to see it not as a shield from suffering but as a way of meeting life with strength, dignity, and compassion.
In every stage, the fall from virtue is possible. Virtue is not perfection; it is the courageous and humble commitment to keep choosing the good, even when it is hard.